Beowulf: Summary and analysis of poem(650-1066)

Beowulf: Summary and analysis of poem

INTRODUCTION OF ANGLO-SAXON (OLD ENGLISH) POETRY (650-1066)

A great mystery shrouds the Anglo-Saxon poetry. It is not unlikely that a great part of the Anglo-Saxon poetry is lost to us. From the case of the manuscript of Waldere which was discovered in the binding of a book in Copenhagen, it will not be foolish to think that many manuscripts, as good as those which have survived the onslaught of time might have been sold out as old parchment or given away to boys to make the tails of their kites. Moreover, we do not know for certain whether the English the Angles and Saxons-left their continental homes in Germany in the fifth century along with the manuscript of any poems. It appears that the Anglo-Saxon poems which deal with Scandinavian themes, and are distinctly pagan in outlook were brought over to England by the Angles and Saxons in the fifth century, but were retouched and edited by Christian writers after the conversion of England to Christianity in 597 A. D. The occasional christian moralizing in distinctly heathen poems owes its origin to this Christian retouching and editing. Again the authors of these poems were not literati but were gleemen or scops who sang at the feasts of the nobles.

What now exist of the Anglo-Saxon poetry is to be found chiefly in four manuscript volumes. These are: (a) The manuscripts containing the poems Beowulf and Judith; they were collected by Sir Robert Cotton, and are now in the British Museum; (b) The Exeter Book which contains two of the signed poems of Cynewulf; it was donated to Exeter Cathedral by Bishop Leofric, sometime after 1050; (c) The Vercelli Book which contains two of the signed poems of Cynewulf (including Elene) and Andreas and The Dream of the Rood; it was found at Vercelli near Milan (how this manuscript got there is still a mystery); (d) the Junius Manuscript (now in the Bodleian Library, Oxford) containing the poems of Caedmon; it was given to the Bodleian Library by Junius, librarian to the Earl of Arundel.

II. ANGLO-SAXON (OLD ENGLISH). EPICAL POETRY

BEOWULF

(a) Date and Place of Composition

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(b) The Story

Beowulf opens with a short account of the victorious Danish King Scyld Scefing, whose obsequies are described in some detail. His dead body was placed on a ship, piled up with arms and treasures. The ship passed out to sea, and none knew what happend to it. The reigns of Scyld’s son and grandson, Beowulf and Healfdene are briefly described. One of Healfdene’s son was Hrothgar, and with him the story of
Beowulf, the hero of the poem begins. In his old age Hrothgar builds a splendid hall, called Heorot, where the king and his thanes gathered nightly to feast and to listen to the songs of his gleemen. His happiness is, however, destroyed by the monster Grendel who breaks into the hall every night, and devours as many as thirty warriors, at a time. No weapon can harm the monster with the result that Heorot is left deserted and silent. The nightly raid of Grendel goes on for twelve years and the rumour of Grendel’s raid at last reaches the land of Geats where a youngman of superhuman strength and courage lives under the roof of his uncle, king Hygelac, Beowulf is his name. When Beowulf hears of this cruel raid he determines to go to the assistance of Hrothgar. With fourteen companions Beowulf crosses the sea and reaches the Danish coast.

When the night falls, Hrothgar and Beowulf leave the hall in charge of some knights. At midnight Grendel’s mother comes in raging in revenge, and carries off Aeschere, the king’s friend and his chief councillor to her cave. At dawn Beowulf is summoned, and the king, overwhelmed with grief, breaks the sad news of Aeschere’s death, and describes the place where Grendel’s mother is believed to live. Beowulf girds up his loins and sets out with his companions for the dwelling place of Grendel’s mother. He plunges, all alone, into the water, and as Grendel’s mother sees him, she rushes out upon him, and drags him into her cave.

A desperate fight follows and ultimately Beowulf succeeds in killing her with the magic sword he finds in the cave the sword too heavy for warriors to wield. He finds the dead body of Grendel in the cave and cuts off its head. Taking the head of Grendel and the hilt of the magic sword he swims back to the shore where his faithful companions are waiting for him. The Danes have already left the shore thinking that Beowulf will ‘never return. Beowulf’s companions were very glad to see their hero, and proudly took their way back to Heorot. The king congratulates Beowulf on his unbelievable feat of bravery. He holds a feast in honour of Beowulf and rewards him with rich gifts. On the following day Beowulf takes leave of Hrothgar, and sailed back with his faithful companions to his homeland.

Many years have elapsed. Beowulf has become the king of the Geats and has reigned over them gloriously for fifty years. When he was standing on the western sky of his life his kingdom comes to be ravaged by a fire-spitting dragon who gets furious because some jewels are stolen from an ancient treasure which he has guarded for three hundred years. Beowulf, greatly angered, resolves to attack the dragon. With some thegns he sets out for the dragon’s lair. He enters the dragon’s lair. The dragon rushes in upon him, and Beowulf strikes him on the head by the sword; but the sword breaks and the dragon seizes him by the neck. There is a mortal combat; all the thegns except Wiglaf flee in fear. Wiglaf comes to Beowulf’s rescue, and with the holp of Wiglaf succeeds in killing the dragon; but he himself is mortally wounded during the encounter with the dragon, and he dies, consoled by the thought that by his death he has not only snatched away his people from the jaws of death, but also gained for them a hoard of treasures. His body is burnt on a great pyre, and a huge barrow is constructed over the remains of the pyre.

(c) As an Epic

A sharp controversy rages as to whether or not Beowulf is an epic. There is no denying the fact that it lacks some of the essential qualities of an epic. We do not find in it the high seriousness, and dignity which we find in Milton’s Paradise Lost or the Iliad and the Odyssey. Still it is an epic, because it possesses some great qualities of the epic, while lacking some others.

One of the great qualities of the epic is the unity of design. Beowulf possesses this epic quality, though its unity of the plot is not like the unity of the iliad or the Odyssey or the Paradise Lost. :Unity of design :There is perfect unity in the first part of the epic which deals with the narrative of Beowulf’s expedition, his voyage to Denmark, his fight with Grendel and Grendel’s mother, his return to the land of the Gauts, and his report of the whole adventure to king Hygelac. As W. P. Ker says, “in this part, of the poem, taken by itself there is no defect of unity.” We come across in this part innumerable episodes and digressions, but they are quite consistent and relevant, filling up the epic plan and opening out the perspective of the story, Even the episodes like the interlude of Finnesburh which are not strictly relevant are duly proportioned and subordinated to the main story. But this unity is broken to some extent by the addition of the sequel dealing with Beowulf’s adventure with the fire-spitting dragon, But the sequel does not hang loosely and independently as many think; it is connected with the first part because the same person (i. e. Beowulf) is involved in both. Moreover, it deals with the last phase of the hero’s life, and the epic would have suffered greatly in interest without this sequel.

Another great quality of the epic is what Dr. Tillyard terms Choric. This means that an epic should serve as the mouthpiece of an age, or of a nation or a religion, and not merely of its author. In other words, an epic should give deathless expression to the spirit of a particular age or a tribe. Beowulf amply shows this quality. :Choric quality: It reflects the ideals of that state of society which goes by the name of Heroic Age, and in this respect it betryas striking resemblance to the Odyssey. In it, as in the Odyssey are to be found “the grave courtesy with which men of rank are received and dismissed, the generosity of rulers and the loyalty of retainers, the thirst for fame through the achievement of deeds of courage and endurance, the solemn boasting of warriors before and after performance, the interest in genealogies and pride in a noble heredity” (David Daiches).

Beowulf is full of all sorts of references and allusions to great events, to the fortunes of kings and nations which seem to come in naturally, as if :Historical allusions: the poet had in his mind the whole history of all the people who were in any way connected with Beowulf. According to Ker it is these historical allusions which make Beowulf a true epic poem. “They give”, he says, “the impression of reality and weight; the story is not in the air, or in a fabulous country like that of Spenser’s Faerie Queene; it is a part of the solid world’. These allusions also lend some amount of seriousness to the narrative.

Beowulf is characterized by :comprehensiveness:, which is a great epic quality. As W. P. Ker says: “The beauty and the strength of the poem of Beowulf, as of all true epics depend mainly upon its comprehensive power, its inclusion of various aspects, its faculty of changing the mood of the story.” Beowulf’s fight with Grendel touches upon the springs of mortal terror, making us apprehensive of the real Comprehensive adversaries to be met in this world, while the fight with ness Grendel’s mother touches upon the terror which is far away from the human habitations-“, the terror which is accompanied with a charm and beauty, the beauty of the Gordon, such as is absent from the first adventure.” (Ker). Beowulf’s fight with the dragon and his subsequent death are changed with pathetic intention.

In Beowulf we also come across some of the :epic conventions: such as the prologue, the description of a long and dangerous journey undertaken by the hero or some other person and the introduction of the scenes of athletic competitions and games. Thus Beowulf opens with a Epic conventions prologue in the true epic manner; it contains the description of the fearful and dangerous journey Beowulf undertakes to reach the dwelling-place of Grendel’s mother. It also contains the reference to the swimming competition Beowulf had with Breea, his rival.
The language of Beowulf is cast in the epic style. In it concrete phrases are used and abstract expressions are eschewed. The poet uses such self-explaining compounds as ‘the sailer of the sea’ (for ship), sea-wolf or sea-woman (for Grendel’s mother). Like the Iliad or Odyssey and the Ramayana and the Mahabharata Beowulf is characterized by the formality, dignity and vigorousness of speeches, the deliberate choice and variation of phrases (e.g. brim-wylf, merewif, :Style: grund-wyrgen for Grendel’s mother), the massing of detail and elaboration of descriptions.
According to Stopford Brooke Beowulf “has an epic quality in this that the purification of the hero-the development of his character to perfection.” When Beowulf appears again after fifty years of slience, we find in him the same courage, heroism and moral dignity as we have :Purification of the hero: seen before. But he has grown wiser, and nobler with the waning of his physical strength. He has become the father of his people the image of a great and worthy king. And at last he dies for the sake of his subjects, and wins an undying fame. The moral triumph is attained and fate, not Beowulf, is really conquered in the contest.” (S. Brooke). This is the purification of the soul, and the ever-recurring theme of many a epic.
To conclude Beowulf is a true epic, possessing as it does many epic qualities and epic conventions.

(d) As a picture of Ancient Teutonic Life Or The Historical Value of Beowulf

The historical value of Beowulf lies in the picture it gives of the ancient Teutonic life, the life lived by the forbears of the English before they left their Germanic homes and crossed over to England. In it we see a vivid pen-picture of the customs of the court, the relations of the rulers to their people, the position of women in society, the works of war and peace, the king’s hall, the feast, the life of the rovers and the settled town. “Behind the wars and tribal wanderings, behind the contentions of the great, we watch in this poem the steady, continuous life of home. the passions and thoughts of men, the way they talked and moved and sang and drank and lived and loved among one another and for one another.” (Stopford Brooke).

Beowulf gives a very good picture of the :primitive court life: which was one of elaborate formalities. The court was held in a big hall. The king sat on a high seat at the east end of the hall. The king’s seat was considered sacred, and no fiend or monster could approach it. Thus the seat on which Hrothgar sat was considered to have supernatural quality. and Grendel, the fiend could not approach it. The strangers could not enter the hall without the permission of the king. Beowulf and his fellow Primitive warriors had to wait outside the hall before they were daughters of the king and their women sat behind the king. At the foot of the king’s seat sat the jester, the boon companion of the king. Hunferth, the jester of Hrothgar, sat at the foot of the king’s seat. The thegns of the king including his sons and the visitors sat on the benches which ran at right angles to the throne. To drink wine in joy was a common phenomenon of the court life. The queen generally filled the cup of wine for the king and the guests.

court-life permitted to enter the hall of Hrothgar. The queen, the The triumph in battle or in any adventure was celebrated by the feast and merry-making. During the feast the minstrals sang, and everybody drank wine. In the morning following the night in :Feast & merry making: which Beowulf kills Grendel, Hrothgar arranged a great feast to celebrate Beowulf’s victory. While the feast went on the minstrel sang the saga of Finn, and his sons, of Hengest. Hnaef and Hildeburh. When the song was over the servants served the wine, and the queen Wealhtheow came forth to offer the wine-cup to her The rulers were very generous, and considerate. Whenever their warriors and thegns performed the acts of heroism or won the battle, they presented rich gifts to them. Hrothgar, in requital of Grendel’s overthrow gave to Beowulf “a golden ensign, a helm, a coat of mail and the great treasure of a sword.” The queen Wealhtheow jewelled collar, well-known all over the north, as fine as the Brosings’ collar that Hama wore, and has wrested from :Generosity of the rulers: presented to Beowulf “a byrnie and armlets and a Eormanric.” (S. Brooke).

Warriors in those days thirsted for fame through the performance of the deeds of valour, and were given to solemn boastings before and after the performance of the courageous deeds. It is to quench his thirst for :Thirst for fame: fame that Beowulf crossed over the sea to the land of the Spear Danes, and offered to kill the man-eating monster Grendel. Again, when the queen Wealhtheow bore the cup of wine to Beowulf, he (Beowulf) took the cup from her hands and said boastingly:

“This was my thought when I shipped on the sea; sat down in my boat with a band of my men, that I would fully work out the will of your folk, or fall on the field of slaughter, fast in the grips of the foe. Earllike will I fulfil the daring deed, or abide my end-day in this mead-hall.”
Before setting out for the dwelling place of Grendel’s mother Beowulf boasts to the king Hrothgar:

“Not in the earth’s breast, nor deep in the sea, nor in the mountain holt, nor in the abyss of ocean, go where she will, shall Grendel’s kin escape from me.”

The retainers in those days were very faithful and loyal to their lords. When Beowulf did not return long after he had plunged into the sea-water in search of the dwelling place of Grendel’s mother, the thegns of Hrothgar took him for dead, and left the shore with
:Nature of the retainers: the observation: “We shall not see him again.” But retainers Beowulf’s own thegns remained there, sick in heart, wishing to see their dear lord again. Proving untrue to the lord through cowardice or fear was attended with shame and disgrace and brought dishonour to the families of cowards.

When the followers of Beowulf who had fled to the nearby wood before the fearful charge of the fire-spitting dragon, came stealing back after Beowulf had slain the dragon and had died as a result of his being himself mortally wounded during the encounter, Wiglaf who did not flee, and helped his lord (i. e. Beowulf) to kill the dragon, reproached them bitterly and told them that it was disgraceful on the part of a warrior to desert his lord through fear and cowardice.

Rank was duly observed, and the kings and nobles knew the rank, the ancestry :Rank: and the renown of other kings and nobles in other countries. When Wulfgar delivered the news of Beowulf’s arrival to Hrothgar, Hrothgar declared that he knew Beowulf’s father and mother and Beowulf himself. He also knew his heroic exploits, and that he had the strength of thirty men in his grip.

Everybody in the ancient Teutonic society, whether a king or a clown loved song. The kings and warriors not only regaler :Love for song: their ears with the songs sung by the minstrels but als themselves sang and played on the harp on occasions.

Women were held in high esteem in the ancient Teutonic society Their presence was considered essential in the feasts and in the courts They passed the cups of wine to the warriors with their own hand, and presented rich gifts to them in recognition of their acts of bravery. In the great feast held to celebrate the occasion of Beowulf’s victory over Grendel, the queen Wealhtheow offered the wine cup to :Position of women: her husband Hrothgar and Beowulf. She also presented to Beowulf byrnie, armlets and jewelled collar. While commenting upon the picture of Wealhtheow passing the winecups to the warriors during the feasting and rejoicing after Beowult’s arrival in Heorot, Long says “The picuture of Wealhtheow passing the mead cup to the warriors with her own hand is a noble one, and plainly indicates the reverence paid by these strong men to their wives and mothers.” At the king’s death women acted as regents while their sons were young, and could dispose of the kingdom, as Hyged attempted to do. ‘Women were also peace-weavers’ they were given away in marriage with a view to putting an end to the wars and rivalry. In order to appease the feud Hrothgar married his daughter to Ingeld, the son of Froda. Women belonging to the families of peasants were hard-working.

They “sat spinning at their doors, or moved hither and thither, carrying water orattending to the cattle.” (S. Brooke). The forbears of the English were fatalistic, melancholy, stern and sober. When, after describing the death of Aeschere at the hand of Grendel’s mother, and the place where she lived, Hrothgar says to Beowulf: “Seek her out if you dare”, Beowulf replies in a fatalistic and melancholy way: “All of us shall die sooner or later, so let him who can :Fatalism: gain honour before death.” Fate seemed to them relentless and implacable, but they did never resign cowardly to Fate. Rather they fought against it bravely.

(e) The Christian Elements in Beowulf

Though Beowulf had been most probably written before the English left their continental homes, and crossed over to England in the fifth century A.D. it was retouched and edited by some Christian poet about the year 1000. So it is natural to expect to come across some Christian elements in an otherwise pagan poem. Thus it contains a considerable number of passages which are distinctly Christian in character According to H. Murno Chadwick “The extent to which the Christian Reason for & element is present varies somewhat in different parts of distribution of the poem. In the last portion (lines 2200-3183) the Christian elements number of lines affected by it amounts to less than four percent, while in the section dealing with Beowulf’s return (lines 1904-2199) it is begligible. In the earlier portions on the other hand, the percentage rises to between nine and ten.” The Christian elements are again equally distributed between the speeches and the narrative. While giving the description of Heorot among its desolats moors, the poet suddenly digresses, and makes an irrelevant reference to the creation of the world. Like a true Christian the poet says that it was the Almighty God who created the earth and the ocean and set the sun and the moon to give light to dwellers of the land, and adorned the fields of the earth with branched and leafy trees. S. Brooke says that the lines reflecting these Christian sentiments “seem to have a softer movement than the other Beowulf verses, and above all, that sought-out pleasure in natural beauty which does not belong to the pagan, but does eminently belong to the Christian Poetry of the English before the conquest.” In another passage the poet records the Christian belief that all the demons, elves and fearful sea-monster grew out of the race of Cain, the monster.

(f) Elegiac Note in Beowulf

Beowulf deals with the heroic exploits of Beowulf-with his success. ful fights with monsters and dragons. But this heroic poem is marked by an elegiac note by the conspicuous :absence of the sense: of joy in life which is necessary to make the work of imagination Absence of sense healthy. In the Beowulf world happiness is like an of joy occasional episode in the general drama of pain. Life is conceived here as a plaything of Fate. “Fate must have its way”, says Beowulf when he boastfully declares his intention of fighting Grendel. The omnipotence of Fate is referred to in the poem now and then, which does much to diffuse the note of sadness and melancholy. Again, “there are constant allusions to the nothingness of life, of courage, and of glory. and although Beowulf is in every point a hero, the ideal of an active force, serving good and triumphing over evil, the poem does not convey that effect of fortifying energy which might be expected of it. This poem which is a glorification of bold enterprise leaves a bitter taste, or at least the impression of universal melancholy. It makes life seem sad, effort vain.” (Legouis) Beowulf reflects upon the nothingness of human life after Hrothgar has described the painful death of Aeschere in the hands of Grendel’s mother, and the terrible place she lives in, and has requested him: “Seek her out if you dare.” Thus he says to Hrothgar by way of consolation: